Step 3: For individual items, select a consistent item style (I) and emphasize navigational cues (I).

(I) = instrument example

Once items are ordered sensibly, consider each item's graphic style and the navigational cues available for working through the questionnaire. Style includes factors such as typeface and typesize, spacing, and appearance. These factors strongly affect respondents' ability to understand what is being asked and to respond appropriately.

A) Item style. There is no single "best" item style, but the following guidelines address common issues with predetermined-choice items.

Run answer choices vertically rather than horizontally; a vertical arrangement is both easier to fill out and to score (see the contrast between the top and bottom versions of the same question in Figure 2).

In the past year, how often were you offered inservice programs in computer technology? Never Once 2-3 times More than 3 times Horizontal answer format In the past year, how often were you offered inservice programs in computer technology? Never Once 2-3 times More than 3 times Vertical answer format

Figure 2. Contrasting between horizontal and vertical answer formats. Vertical formats are easier to fill out and score.

The exception to this rule is items-in-a-series questions, for which the answers have to run horizontally because it is the most efficient way of grouping the questions together (see Figure 1).

Differentiate the question from the answers by using different font sizes and weights. A good technique is to use a bold font for the question, followed by an unbolded font for the answers. However, keep font variations to a minimum; it is easier for the reader if the entire questionnaire is done in a simple, consistent font style.

Use a consistent approach for answer options. This involves presenting items that involve a range of options in a consistent order. For example, if "strongly agree" is given as the first option, then the other agreement-type items should start in the same way. Respondents also should be able to mark all their answers in the same way. Thus, don't mix checkboxes with circles or underlines.

If the respondent is being asked to write out an answer of at leaset several words, draw lines and leave adequate space between lines to encourage legible handwriting.

B) Navigational cues. Long questionnaires covering a variety of subtopics can be challenging to respondents, particularly if there are multiple sets of directions and places where a respondent might be asked to skip a series of questions, depending on an answer. The following techniques minimize the burden put on the respondent.

Number all items consecutively, avoiding letters or number-letter combinations. Even if the questionnaire has distinct sections, continue with a single numbering sequence. Thus, if the questionnaire has three sections, each with 15 items, the first items of the second and third sections would be numbered "16" and "31," respectively.

When a single item has a number of subparts, such as with an items-in-a-series format, deciding how to number the item can be more complex. If the overarching question is numbered and the subquestions are given no numbers or letters, this avoids the clutter of an additional set of labels. On the other hand, not having subquestions labeled makes it difficult to quickly refer to an item and may create confusion in coding. Thus, using a set of letters (A, B, C, etc.) for subquestions may be appropriate.

Minimize the use of directions. If special directions are needed for a subsection of items or a specific item, give those directions right before the subsection or item.

If some respondents may have to skip a set of items, signal the skip with multiple cues like those shown in Figure 3.

1. Normally, do you require each student to produce a report for each lab? No (Skip to 3) Yes    2. (If Yes) Do you grade the student's lab report? Always Sometimes Occasionally Never

Figure 3. A useful way to help respondents navigate through skipping of items.